If you’re eager to consistently catch more wahoo using the science of wahoo fishing. This wahoo fishing blog is your guide to the real wahoo fishing data. Forget the guessing games. I am going to break down a couple of my favorite proven wahoo studies that show you why wahoo act the way they do.

We all know the feeling – burning fuel, dragging baits, and coming home empty-handed. Wahoo fishing can feel like a guessing game, a constant cycle of trying random things and hoping for the best. But what if there was a better way? What if you could use science to understand the system? That’s how I’m wired.

This Wahoo guide is about that system

Now, I get guys telling me all the time, “Yeah, yeah, I already know this stuff.” But then I see them out there. They only seem to catch fish on those days when everyone is catching – the days the fish are practically jumping in the boat. The rest of the time? Not so much. Or maybe they do find fish… right after they’ve pinged me on their radar to see where I’m setting up. (If I showed you my photos of who these folks are, you would be amazed, because I keep all my receipts.)

There’s a huge difference between knowing about the science and knowing how to apply it consistently. This guide isn’t just theory; it’s about turning that science into repeatable success.

Back in my pharmaceutical days many years ago, I got dropped into a “sink or swim” situation. A mystery bacteria was destroying a critical product. No clues, just “figure it out.” So, I dug in. For three solid months, I lived at the manufacturing plants, chasing down every lead until I finally traced it back to tiny leaks at a milk supplier. Problem solved.

It wasn’t just about the job; it was about the challenge, the need to understand the ‘why’. I just like to figure stuff out. That’s the same mindset I bring to wahoo fishing. I love digging into the science, understanding their behavior, and sharing that knowledge.

This ultimate wahoo fishing guide is about one thing: sharing proven, science-based knowledge so you can catch fish consistently. To make this easy, I’m going to break this blog down into the two most important parts of the wahoo:

• Part 1: Wahoo Metabolism. This is the “why” — why they have to eat, how they digest, and what their ‘food ladder’ really looks like.
• Part 2: Wahoo Migration. This is the “where” — where they travel, how deep they swim, and the exact water temperatures they use as a highway.

Let’s get into the real science of wahoo fishing.

Part 1-Metabolism: The Wahoo’s Internal Hunger Clock

Why Are Wahoo Stomachs Empty?

Here’s a fact that drives wahoo fishermen crazy: 90% of wahoo anglers during wahoo season catch wahoo with empty stomachs. Their metabolisms are so fast they digest food almost instantly.

Wahoo have unbelievably fast metabolisms. Think of them not just as race cars, but as high-performance jet engines that burn fuel at an astonishing rate. This means a few critical things:

1. Lightning-Fast Digestion: They process food extremely quickly. They essentially turn a fish into “fuel” in a matter of hours. This digestion speed is insanely fast and varies based on:
   • Water Temperature: Being cold-blooded, their metabolism runs red-hot in their preferred warm water (63.5°F – 81.5°F), leading to faster digestion.
   • Meal Size: A small baitfish (“snack”) digests much quicker than a 5-pound bonita (“full meal”).
   • Meal Type: Soft prey like squid digest faster than bony, scaly fish.
2. Constant Need for Fuel: Burning energy this fast (for swimming, those incredible bursts of speed, and just existing) means they need to refuel often. They can’t just eat one big meal and relax for days like a grouper.

By the time you hook a wahoo, fight it, gaff it, and get it on deck, its super-charged digestive system has often already broken down its last meal into mush or passed it entirely. Plus, they aren’t grazers; they’re sprinters hunting specific baitfish. You might even catch them right before they eat.

This is exactly why my work over the years of catching wahoo with actual food in them is so valuable. I have been fortunate enough to catch a few of them in that perfect, tiny window between eating and fully digesting, which has allowed me to “match the hatch” in a way most anglers, and even many scientists, never get to.

So, if you can’t just look in their stomachs, how do you ever figure out what they really eat? “Science”  

 

Make sure to read this blog as I go into matching the hatch for wahoo fishing and show stomach contents of one wahoo.

Wahoo Fishing-The Science of Matching the Hatch 

So, if you can’t just look in their stomachs, how do you ever figure out what they really eat? Scientists have a high-tech tool that solves this. It’s called Stable Isotope Analysis. It’s based on the simple rule: “You are what you eat.” The “chemical signature” (isotopes) of food gets built right into the fish’s muscle over months. One of these “trackers” is called Nitrogen-15, and it’s the key to understanding the wahoo diet.

What is Nitrogen-15 (The “Food Ladder”)?

In simple terms, Nitrogen-15 ($\text{N-15}$) is a special, “heavy” version of a nitrogen atom. It’s a natural “tracker” that builds up in an animal’s body at a predictable rate as you go up the food chain.

This is the food ladder. Here’s how it works:

The Nitrogen-15 “Food Ladder” in the Ocean

This table shows how the special “heavy” nitrogen (Nitrogen-15 or N-15) builds up as you move up the food chain. This is how scientists figure out a wahoo’s long-term diet.

Level	Trophic Position (Approx.)	Organism Example	Role	Nitrogen-15 (N-15) Status
1	1.0	Tiny Algae (Phytoplankton)	Producer	Base Level: Absorbs N-15 from the water.
2	2.0	Tiny Animal (Zooplankton)	Primary Consumer (Herbivore)	Level Increases: Eats algae, keeps more “heavy” N-15.
3	3.0	Small Baitfish	Secondary Consumer (Carnivore)	Level Increases Again: Eats zooplankton, N-15 goes up (~3‰).
4	4.0+	Wahoo (or other Predator)	Tertiary Consumer (Carnivore)	Level Increases Again: Eats baitfish, N-15 goes up again.

Key Takeaway: By measuring the N-15 level in a wahoo’s muscle, scientists can calculate its average “rung” on this ladder (its Trophic Position), telling them what level of prey it has been eating over time.

Connecting N-15 to Wahoo

By testing a tiny piece of wahoo muscle, scientists can read its long-term N-15 level. This number gives them the wahoo’s exact “Trophic Position”—its true “rung on the food ladder.” This is the entire point of the diet study. It lets us see what a wahoo has been eating for months, not just its last meal.

The Science of Fishing for Wahoo: The Wahoo Food Ladder

Now, here’s the problem the scientists when they did this study.  The wahoo “Food Ladder” doesn’t start at the same level everywhere. Here’s how the starting points (baselines) compared in the wahoo diet study:

Region	Analogy	Baseline Nitrogen-15 (N-15) Value	Reason
Caribbean Sea	Ladder starts on the floor	Low: 2.0‰	Clear, open ocean, low nutrients
Gulf of Mexico	Ladder starts on a stage	High: 6.2‰	Nutrient-rich water (rivers)

Key Takeaway: You have to know the “starting point” (baseline) before you can figure out how many “rungs” a wahoo has actually climbed on its local food ladder.

Wahoo Trophic Position-Gulf vs. Caribbean

This table breaks down the scientific findings on wahoo diet using stable isotope analysis (specifically Nitrogen-15) to determine their Trophic Position (their true spot on the food ladder). Remember, the “baseline” is the food ladder’s starting point, which differs by region.

Key Takeaway: Even though Gulf wahoo initially looked like they were eating higher (due to the high baseline), the Trophic Position calculation proved Caribbean wahoo were actually feeding at a higher level relative to their own environment. This highlights regional differences in wahoo feeding habits and confirms they are opportunistic feeders.

Understanding the “Food Ladder” & Its Starting Point

To figure out what wahoo really eat, scientists had to account for the fact that the “Food Ladder” starts at different heights in different places. When scientists first looked at the wahoo, the wahoo from the Gulf of Mexico looked like they were on a “higher rung” (their N-15 numbers were higher). But they were only higher because their whole stage was higher. The scientists had to “subtract the height of the stage” (the baseline) to find out who actually climbed more rungs

Analogy	Scientific Meaning	Gulf of Mexico Example	Caribbean Example	Why it Matters
The “Stage”	Food Web’s Starting Point: The base level of Nitrogen-15 (N-15) in the tiny plants (phytoplankton) at the very bottom of the local food web.	The “stage” was high (started higher off the ground).	The “stage” was low (started on the floor).	The starting point isn’t zero, and it changes everywhere.
“Height of the Stage”	Baseline N-15 Value: The actual measured N-15 number at the bottom of the food web.	High Baseline: 6.2‰ (because of nutrient-rich river water).	Low Baseline: 2.0‰ (because of clear, nutrient-poor open ocean water).	This is the number scientists need to know before they can figure out how many “rungs” a wahoo climbed.
“Climbing the Ladder”	Moving Up Trophic Levels: When one animal eats another, the N-15 level increases in its body.	A wahoo climbs its local ladder, starting from the high stage.	A wahoo climbs its local ladder, starting from the low floor.	We want to know how many “rungs” the wahoo climbed on its own ladder, not just its final height off the ground.
“Subtracting the Stage”	Adjusting for the Baseline: Scientists take the wahoo’s N-15 level and subtract the local baseline N-15 value.	Subtract the high baseline (6.2‰) from the Gulf wahoo’s N-15 level.	Subtract the low baseline (2.0‰) from the Caribbean wahoo’s N-15 level.	This calculation reveals the true number of “rungs” climbed (the Trophic Position). It removes the “stage height” difference, allowing a fair comparison of diets between regions. This proved Caribbean wahoo (4.1) climbed more rungs than Gulf wahoo (3.6-3.7), meaning they ate higher on their local food chain.

The Bottom Line: You can’t just compare the raw N-15 numbers between fish from different areas. You must account for the local “starting point” (the baseline) to understand their true position on the food ladder. 

Why “Elephants Eat Peanuts”: The Wahoo “Snack vs. Meal” Effect

Finally, metabolism explains why bait size affects bite frequency:

• Feeding on Smaller Baits (“Snacks”): Provides less energy per hunt. The wahoo burns through it quickly and needs to hunt again sooner. Result: Potentially more frequent bites.
• Feeding on Larger Baits (“Full Meals”): Provides a big energy payout. Takes longer to digest, fueling the wahoo for longer. It doesn’t need to hunt again as quickly. Result: Potentially longer waits between bites, but perhaps from bigger fish.

Understanding the prevalent bait size helps manage expectations and dial in your strategy.

Wahoo Intel On Matching the Hatch

The science is  clear: Wahoo are NOT picky eaters. They are “opportunistic feeders”—a fancy term for “they eat whatever is easiest to catch in their neighborhood.” One of my new favorite lures is the Gore’s Offshore Flying Fish. I have added a couple these to my spread. For ordering information click here.

That 90% “empty stomach” statistic is very real and makes it tough to learn, but I have been fortunate enough over the years to be in that 10% that does find stomach contents. The wahoo’s “menu” changes from region to region.

I can now match my lures to the specific baitfish in the area by the time of year. This isn’t guesswork; it’s a proven system. This is the exact knowledge I share in my Wahoo Trolling Plug 4 Week Intensive course.

Part 2-The Wahoo Migration Map – Where Do They Go?

Now for the big one: the wahoo migration. A different team of scientists wanted to know where wahoo go, how deep they swim, and what water they really like.

Wahoo Migrations-Tagging Study Results

The scientists used Pop-up Satellite Archival Tags (PSATs). 

1. The Tagging: They caught four large, adult wahoo and tagged them right in the Straits of Florida (at ~26.5°N, 79.3°W). This is a perfect “wahoo highway” in the Gulf Stream, right between West Palm Beach and the Bahamas.
2. The Data: For months, these tags recorded depth, water temperature, and location every single minute.
3. The “Text Home”: After a set time (from 5 to 111 days), the tags automatically popped off, floated to the surface, and beamed their entire “diary” to a satellite.

Wahoo Tagging Study Migration Results

The data from a few tagging studies is a wahoo fishermen’s goldmine. It gives us four rules for finding wahoo.

Why Wahoo are “Here One Day and Gone the Next”

Wahoo Migration: PSAT Tagging Study Results (Theisen & Baldwin, 2012)

This table showcases the incredible wahoo movement revealed by PSAT tagging. All fish were tagged in the Straits of Florida (~26.5°N, 79.3°W).

This table clearly shows that wahoo are always on the move. You are not fishing for a resident fish like a yellowtail snapper that stays in one area. You are trying to intercept wahoo nomads on a long-distance road trip. The incredible speeds and distances prove why consistency is so challenging: the ‘pack’ you found the previous day is likely gone by the next, meaning you’re always on the hunt for a new group migrating through. Staying ahead of the fish and finding their migratory spots based on temperature, currents, and time of year is the only way to achieve consistent success.

In the Good Karma Sportfishing Angler’s Edge group, I teach anglers the exact system I use to predict these movements and find those migratory highways. If you want to get that edge and stop chasing yesterday’s fish, sign up here.

Wahoo Fishing Water Temperatures

This is the most important rule for finding fish. Wahoo are cold-blooded (ectothermic). Their body is the same temperature as the water, and they hate being cold.

The tags showed wahoo spent over 90% of their time in a very specific “comfort zone”:

• Water Temperature: 63.5°F to 81.5°F (17.5°C to 27.5°C)

 Stop fishing in the wrong water. This is why “temp breaks” are magic. Wahoo use these “warm lanes” of 63-81°F water as their personal highways.

• Get a sea surface temperature (SST) chart before you go. 
• Find the “edges” where water of different temperatures crashes together.
• Troll along that edge. You are now fishing on their “highway,” and it’s only a matter of time before they show up.

Get signed up for SatFish and study the SST charts. Honestly, it is the only way you are going to get any better. Use my code GoodKarma and get $20.00 off at checkout.

What is the Best Depth for Targeting Wahoo?

Wahoo Daily Depth Schedule: The “Elevator Effect” (Theisen & Baldwin, 2012)

This table reveals the predictable daily vertical movement of wahoo based on the PSAT tagging study. Understanding this wahoo behavior is key to successful wahoo fishing.

Key Takeaway: Wahoo depth is not random. They follow a daily schedule driven by their prey’s  vertical migration. To consistently catch wahoo, you must adjust your trolling depth based on the time of day and sunlight conditions. Fish shallow in low light, fish deep in bright sun. This predictable wahoo feeding pattern is the “money tip” for anglers.  The wahoo simply follow their dinner table up and down like an elevator.

What is the Ideal Water Temperatures for Wahoo Fishing:

Over the years I have seen changes in the wahoo migrations.  Just know, wahoo don’t necessarily start migrating at one specific trigger temperature. Instead, their migration is driven by the seasonal movement of their preferred water temperature range.  Preferred Temperature Range: Wahoo spend over 90% of their time in water between 63.5°F and 81.5°F (17.5°C to 27.5°C). This is their “comfort zone.”

• Migration Driver: As ocean temperatures change seasonally, these bands of preferred water shift geographically. Wahoo migrate to follow and stay within this comfortable temperature range.
• Cooling Waters (Fall/Winter): As nearshore or northern waters cool below the low 60s (°F), wahoo typically migrate south or further offshore (e.g., towards the warmer Gulf Stream) to find water within their preferred 63.5°F – 81.5°F band.
• Warming Waters (Spring/Summer): As nearshore or northern waters warm up into the mid-60s (°F) and above, wahoo will follow this warming trend, migrating northwards or closer to shore.
• In simple terms: They migrate to stay on the “warm water highway” defined by that 63.5°F to 81.5°F range. They are constantly seeking out areas where the water falls within these temperatures, as this is also where their prey is likely to be abundant and where their cold-blooded bodies function optimally

Wahoo Are “Sprinters,” Not “Divers”

One last, crucial secret from the wahoo study reveals how wahoo handle extreme temperatures at both ends of the spectrum: Wahoo are built for speed and short bursts into uncomfortable water, not for long stays.

Wahoo “Sprinter” Behavior: Handling Extreme Temperatures 

This table explains how wahoo use their speed to make brief hunting attacks into water outside their preferred temperature range (63.5°F – 81.5°F). Wahoo are ambush predators built for short sprints, not long stays in uncomfortable conditions.

Key Takeaway: Wahoo are sprinters, not marathon swimmers, when it comes to temperature extremes. Their ectothermic nature forces them to make quick attacks into uncomfortable cold depths or hot surface layers, followed by an immediate return to their preferred temperature zone to “recharge.” This behavior makes them susceptible to fast-moving presentations like high-speed trolling and jigging, regardless of whether they are attacking from below or ambushing near the surface.

The Wahoo Cold Dive

The tags showed they would make lightning-fast “sprint” dives down into the cold, dark depths to grab a meal.

• Deepest Dive Recorded: 971 feet (296m)
• Coldest Water Encountered: 54°F (12°C)

But because they’re cold-blooded (ectothermic), they can’t stay there. Their bodies would get too cold, making their muscles sluggish. So, they race down, smash their prey, and then race right back up to their warmer “comfort zone” (63.5°F – 81.5°F) to “recharge.”

The Wahoo Hot Surface Dash (The Thermocline Connection)

Now, think about the opposite scenario, especially common in places like South Florida (West Palm Beach, Boynton Beach) during warmer months when surface temperatures can soar to 88°F or even higher. That’s above their preferred range. So why are wahoo caught there?

It’s often because of a thermocline – a sharp boundary where that hot surface water meets much cooler water just below it.

• Bait Concentration: Thermoclines act like a “floor” or “ceiling” for baitfish. Bait often concentrates right at or just above this boundary, trapped in that hot surface layer.
• Wahoo’s Ambush Strategy: The wahoo don’t live in that 88°F water. They cruise below it in the cooler, more comfortable depths (maybe 75°F-80°F). When they sense prey above, they use their incredible speed to make a lightning-fast vertical SPRINT up into the hot zone, ambush the bait near the surface, and then immediately dive back down to the cooler, comfortable water below the thermocline to “recharge” and digest.

They are essentially doing the exact same thing as the cold dive, just in reverse. They tolerate the uncomfortable heat for a few seconds to secure a meal, then retreat. This explains why you can absolutely catch wahoo trolling near the surface even when the water feels like a bathtub – the fish aren’t staying there, they’re just making quick raids.

 

Beyond Water Temperature: How Water Quality & Weather Impact Wahoo Migration

While a wahoo’s main mission is to follow its preferred temperature range (63.5°F – 81.5°F), their migration plans can be thrown off course by major environmental disruptions like unhealthy water conditions and big storms.

Wahoo migrations aren’t just about finding the right temperature; they’re also heavily influenced by food availability and stable water conditions. Red tides and harmful algae blooms act like a “grocery store closure” – they kill or scatter the baitfish wahoo need, forcing the wahoo to migrate elsewhere to find food. Hurricanes are even bigger disruptors. Fish sense them coming and leave the area prior to the storm.  But the aftermath is what really changes the game: hurricanes mix the water, drastically changing temperatures and currents, and scattering bait for potentially weeks. This forces wahoo into potentially large-scale migrations as they search for areas where conditions return to normal and food is available again. In short, while temperature sets the general path, these major events can cause significant detours by hitting the wahoo’s food supply or fundamentally changing their preferred habitat.

Wahoo Migration Disruptors: Unhealthy Water & Hurricanes

This table breaks down how events like red tides and hurricanes can force wahoo off their typical migration routes.

Event	Primary Impact Mechanism	Wahoo Response	Keywords (SEO)
Red Tides / Algae Blooms (HABs)	Indirect: Kills or disperses baitfish (wahoo’s food source) due to toxins or low oxygen (“dead zones”).	Migrate: Wahoo must leave the affected area to find new feeding grounds because their “grocery store” closed. Their high metabolism demands constant food.	Wahoo migration, red tide fishing, algae bloom impact, wahoo feeding habits, fish kill effect, wahoo behavior, water quality fishing
Hurricanes	Short-Term: Barometric pressure change & surface turbulence. Long-Term: Major water mixing (cooling), current shifts, bait scattering, salinity changes.	Short-Term: Avoidance – wahoo sense the storm and move. Long-Term: Forced Migration – wahoo must relocate to find stable water within their preferred temperature range and areas where baitfish have reconcentrated.	Wahoo migration, hurricane fishing, storm impact on fishing, wahoo temperature preference, wahoo behavior, pelagic fish storm response, finding wahoo after storm, Gulf Stream changes, wahoo movement

Connecting the Wahoo Fishing Dots: Could Migrating Schools of Wahoo Change Bait Preference?

Is there connection between the diet study with the migration study? The idea makes sense: If wahoo from the Gulf (who eat lower, TP ~3.7) mix with wahoo from the Caribbean (who eat higher, TP 4.1) as they migrate up the United States East Coast, could their origin affect whether they want smaller or larger baits?

I looked at this a little closer, but the science gives us a slightly different picture:

1. Limited Mixing: The isotope study actually found distinct chemical signatures between Gulf and Atlantic/Caribbean wahoo. They could tell them apart with high accuracy. This suggests that while some fish might cross over, widespread mixing between adult populations isn’t the norm. Most fish seem to stick to their general ocean basin long enough to develop a unique “food signature.”
2. Opportunistic Rules: The strongest finding from the diet study is that wahoo are opportunistic. They eat what’s available where they are now. Even if a fish grew up eating big prey in the Caribbean, when it moves up the coast and finds only smaller bait, it’s going to switch. Hunger and availability trump “memory.”
3. Local Conditions Matter Most: Changes in bait preference along the East Coast are much more likely driven by local, current conditions:
   • What specific baitfish are migrating through that area at that time?
   • What size are the wahoo currently migrating through? (Bigger wahoo often prefer bigger meals).

The Bottom Line: While the idea of origin influencing bait choice is intriguing, the science strongly suggests that “Match the Hatch” locally is still the golden rule. Focus on the bait that’s in front of the wahoo today, not where that wahoo might have been months ago.

Your “Angler’s Edge”: Turning Wahoo Science into Success

So, there you have it. The official “Wahoo Fishing Science Playbook,” written by the wahoo themselves and delivered to us by high-tech science. You now know why wahoo are such opportunistic feeders (thanks to that Nitrogen-15 data) and where they hunt (thanks to those satellite tags). You know they are nomads, you know their “happy place” temperature (63.5°F – 81.5°F), and you know their predictable daily schedule—hunting shallow at dawn and deep at mid-day.

But here’s the hard truth: This knowledge is just the “what” It’s not the “how” This is what separates the 10% of anglers who consistently catch wahoo from the 90% who come home with empty stomachs and stories about “the one that got away.”

Knowing a wahoo eats “opportunistically” doesn’t help you if you don’t know what lures are lures or bait are actually working.  Knowing they go “deep” at noon doesn’t help if you don’t know how to present a lure perfectly in that 166-foot strike zone. That’s the gap I’ve spent my entire career filling. I’m one of that 10% who has been lucky enough to find stomach contents, and I’ve spent years meticulously matching those half-digested baitfish to the exact trolling plugs, colors, and rigging that get the bite.

Ready to Stop Wahoo Guessing and Start Catching Wahoo?

If you’re ready to put these ideas into action, here are a few ways I can help you get there:

• Dive Deeper on Wahoo: For those who are serious about chasing big wahoo, my NEW! Wahoo Plug 4-Week Next Level Advanced Intensive will have some incredible nuggets regarding SatFish that you definitely don’t want to miss. It’s the ultimate deep dive.
• Get the Right Tool: I am a proud SatFish affiliate because I believe in it. If you don’t have SatFish yet, you can use my code GOODKARMA for $20 off your subscription at www.satfish.com.
• Join the Community & Get Dialed In:
  • Consider joining THE Angler’s Edge on my Patreon Community for exclusive content, or book a private 1:1 Zoom call to get a personalized game plan. This will save you so much time, money, and frustration on your hunt for big fish.
  • There is also a FREE Tier and The Good Karma Rigging Crew 2.0 for every level of angler. Check it all out at www.patreon.com/goodkarmasportfishing.
• Come Fish With Me: Want to see it all in action? Book a fishing charter with me in the beautiful Florida Keys—serving Key Largo, Tavernier, and Islamorada. Visit www.goodkarmasportfishing.com to learn more. You can also find all my blogs, podcasts, and courses right there on the website.
• For the Ultimate Edge: The private Good Karma Fishing Club Mastermind is by email and interview only. If you’re ready for the highest level, reach out to support@goodkarmasportfishing.com.

Let’s get you catching.

Capt Ryan

Warning: A Note on Using This Content

I’ve put a lot of time and research into digging up this science and connecting it to real-world fishing tactics. This content is not to be copied or reused without my permission. If you find this information valuable and want to use it for your own content, please reach out and ask. That’s the professional and right thing to do. Just ask.

Sources

1. The “Diet Menu” Study (Trophic Position): Gough, B.; Prouse, A.; Dance, M.A.; Wells, R.J.D.; Rooker, J.R. Regional Variation in the Trophic Ecology of Wahoo (Acanthocybium solandri) in the Western Atlantic Ocean. Fishes 2023, 8, 519. https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes8100519
2. The “Movement & Tagging” Study (PSATs): Theisen, T.C.; Baldwin, J.D. Movements and depth/temperature distribution of the ectothermic Scombrid, Acanthocybium solandri (wahoo), in the western North Atlantic.Marine Biology 2012, 159, 2249–2258. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-012-2010-x